Fauconnier G, Turner M. Conceptual integration and formal expression. Humans have the cognitive ability to make and understand metaphors, and they create animal metaphors in order to cognitively model and represent other agents, including other humans, in our ongoing struggle for existence in a rapidly changing environment. Examples: open/close all folders Anime and Manga Fan Fiction Film Animated Film Live-Action Literature Live-Action TV Music Video Games Western Animation Real Life Previous Index Next Ace of Spades Motifs Arachnid Appearance and Attire Animal Motifs Animal-Motif Team Animal Mecha Animal Tropes The dog will eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in a treat. Thus, misattribution is part of the cognitive process, an inferential system with unavoidable indeterminacy since it depends on individual factors. 1997. http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/primer.html. Zunshine L. Why we read fiction: theory of mind and the novel. 2004; Project Gutenberg. Surprisingly, the leopard responds with affection when he caresses her. Cambridge: MIT Press; 1983. Cosmides L, Tooby J. This is not just because Balzacs story is a work of fiction. With such a wide range of interests and backgrounds, we created assignments that were meant to serve interests both within the larger context of the course and the specific interests of the environmental studies major. WebExample #1: The Jaguar (By Ted Hughes) But who runs like the rest past these arrives At a cage where the crowd stands, stares, mesmerized, As a child at a dream, at a dream, at a jaguar hurrying enraged Through prison darkness after the drills of his eyes On a short fierce fuse. The analysis pointed out the use of place as the bedroom, the setting for the story, and the use of a narrative with expected beginning, tension, and end, that engaged animals as metaphors for nature, innocence, and childhood. Thus far, we have adduced examples that conform to Glucksbergs strict definition of metaphor as a categorical assertion. Human beings have the intelligence to be aware of their own inevitable deaths. They tested this animate monitoring hypothesis by asking human participants to detect changes in visual scenes presented to them on a computer. New et al. WebAnimals have behaviors for almost every imaginable aspect of life, from finding food to wooing mates, from fighting off rivals to raising offspring. 2001;30:627. 2001). 2001, 433). The better one is at knowing cognitive universals, either explicitly or implicitly, then the better one can be at getting inside other peoples heads. Universals, as a suite of cognitive abilities, are thus the biological basis for a theory of mind. This is proposed by the authors of an article entitled: I Am Not an Animal: Mortality Salience, Disgust, and the Denial of Human Creatureliness (Goldenberg et al. Without invoking Lakoffs notational formalisms, we examine the factors that may discourage people from recognizing their automatic processing of metaphors, primary processes which are as much a part of our evolved psychological features as our ability to analyze metaphors. At the same time, the claim that Obama had called Palin a pig may have been reinforced by another sort of frame: that of the crudely aggressive or uppity black man insulting a white woman. The animal that therefore I am. Philos Lit. Entire narratives can be metaphorical when they serve the purpose of expressing one story in terms of a different story (Burke 2003). Some of these behaviors are Brown DE. Haidt J, Rozin P, McCauley C, Imada S. Body, psyche, and culture: the relationship between disgust and morality. In these fields, metaphor is not just a figure of speech. This could be another reason why animals so very often figure in works of literature and get noticed on the cinema screen, along with any kind of animated figure. Zoomorphs tend Hernadi (2001) explains that a Darwinian idea of literature encompasses a range of transactions that challenge and thus enhance our brains vital capacities for expression, communication, representation and signification (56). The uses of narrative. The film also shows that the desert constitutes a culturally constructed place for its Maghrebi inhabitants. When the leopard doesnt strike, we lower our defenses and begin to attach ourselves to the attachment that is forming between the soldier and the leopard. The most poignant emotion is attachment. Yet even in less dramatic contexts, different people assign different meanings to the assertion I am a Republican. Statements of categorial identity are inescapably cultural. Competing interests: I have read and understood BMJ policy on declaration of interests and declare that my only competing interest is my co-authorship of a book about medical English. These protodramatic, protolyric and protonarrative (Hernadi 2001, 6263) activities may in turn have helped strengthen certain skills for non-literary purposes. CAS It is the statistical composite of selection pressures that caused the design of an adaptation. WebPersonification is a figure of speech in which an idea or thing is given human attributes and/or feelings or is spoken of as if it were human. Students learn to analyze ways in which such universals participate in the production and reception of narrative literature and film, whose metaphors can mediate the anxiety we may have about being animals. Hart, K.R., Long, J.H. Psychol Dev Soc. Proc Natl Acad Sci. Wright R. The moral animal: why we are the way we are: the new science of evolutionary psychology. Examples of some imaginary animals created by students. A. Scutum squamatum. Habitat: cold and wet areas (Cold Island of SEAM planet; Fig. 2B). Characteristics: bone-shield on a leg, large claws and dorsal spines to capture preys and to protect its hunting territory, a layer of fat under the scaly skin to protect from cold and as energy supply. B. It includes the composite of historical factors that caused the identity of a person. Webwhich is supposed to be within the human intellectual capacity animal metaphors are always at hand: goosey, burro (donkey), ass or bestia (beast) are just a few examples. Fauconnier G, Turner M. The way we think: conceptual blending and the minds hidden complexities. Human fascination with animal behaviour probably extends back millions of years, perhaps even to times before the ancestors of the species became human in the modern sense. Instead of asserting humans are animals, literature can allow us to experiment with questions such as: Are we animals? Craib I. Director: Lavinia Currier. Privacy We do this even to explain why literary works themselves are so often about humans and/or animals. Place depends on cognitively mediated experiences that are tied to our interactions as animals with other beings in the physical world. Currier modifies the ending of the Balzac story. Fine Line Features; 1998. 28 Examples of Human Behavior John Spacey, November 03, 2020 Human behavior is the range of thoughts, emotions and actions of people. WebMost animal metaphors for human personality are uncomplimentary, reinforcing the perceived distance between humans and nonhuman animal species. New York: Rutledge; 2003. Nickerson RS. A final exam was also given that asked for written responses to five questions. 1996;20:22939. After escaping from Maghrebi nomads, he seeks refuge in a cave, only to discover that he is sharing his new abode with a leopard. Universals allow humans to interact through make-believe with rules. The first module focuses on the role of metaphor in our conceptualizations of the world and ourselves. We use constructions for motion in physical space to express changes in state-space (Lakoff and Johnson 1980), as when we say Humans have risen above animals. In poetics, metaphor is often distinguished from simile in that it asserts properties of one entity in terms of another entity without the use of like or as (My boss is a dragon vs. My boss is like a dragon). Brown TL. New York: W.W. Norton & Company; 1997. We asked students to predict, and justify, which hunting ground they expected to yield more metaphors and to test their prediction by developing an explicit search methodology. To permit the exchange of information and ideas between students of varied backgrounds in the humanities or natural sciences, we developed a conceptual bridge using analytic approaches from cognitive science and literary studies. The story constitutes a multi-layered metaphor for an experience that is current but cannot be articulated in any other way (Craib 2004, 69). We have an innate capacity to notice the evidence that most supports what we already want to believe (Nickerson 1998). Glucksbergs experiments indicate that people do not need to derive an initial, literal interpretation from metaphorical assertions: Metaphors are not understood via a property-matching comparison process. New Lit Hist. Though more recently it has focused on how humans perceive, behave, or respond to nature and environmental issues, Easterlin (2004) observes that ecocriticism lacks a methodology. The narrator claims that an ex-soldier told him a story that will prove its wrong to think animals are without feelings like ours. Our pretentions to culture and meaning, from that standpoint, would be reducible to a thin veneer and could not change the substance of our being any more than, say, lipstick on a pig. Place begins for each individual with attachments to their first other being, mother, and continues through time with changing social relationships, cultural constructions, and identity. According to the terror management theory, a great deal of human behavior can be understood as an attempt to gain psychological equanimity in the face of this awareness (428). BMJ Opinion provides comment and opinion written by The BMJ's international community of readers, authors, and editors. Dunbar R. Grooming, gossip, and the evolution of language. Create an animal metaphors syllabus, complete with readings. By the same token, a frequently used metaphor can have the weaker impact of a simile. That frame was reinforced by visual metaphor when a plethora of images representing Obama as ape-like surfaced at anti-Obama rallies and on web sites. Most animal metaphors for human personality are uncomplimentary, reinforcing the perceived distance between humans and nonhuman animal species. The biggest pedagogic challenge of this course was to find ways to connect with and engage students of many different majors. That thematic and literary universals interact and combine to generate a poems meaning can be demonstrated with Langdon Smiths 1906 poem, Evolution that begins: Subsequent stanzas take the I and You through a series of metamorphoses as the poem traces human evolution from amphibians to creatures swinging in jungle trees, to animal-painting cave dwellers, until they reach their present moment dining at Delmonicos. Thematic universals in the poem include attachment (it is a love poem) and collective identity since the I and You figure in an epic tale of all humanity. We see close-ups of reptiles, insects, and other mammals. Premack DG, Woodruff G. Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Red herrings, which traditionally pussy cats should like, probably originated from the practice of setting false trails for hunting dogs. PubMedGoogle Scholar. The requisite cognitive skills enabling the prehistoric emergence of oral literature could have been byproducts of primate adaptations initially serving nonliterary functions (Hernadi 2001, 62). Thus, alliteration may playfully exercise our evolved ability to discern phonemes and respond to patterns (Boyd 2009). They are well argued with new insights. The initial processing of metaphors appears to be done by a mental module of the kind described by Fodor (1983): an obligatory, rapid, domain-specific (language) set of fixed neural architecture. One way the poem grapples with such anxiety is by establishing a notion of progress. Poetic meter, for instance, exercises our capacity for synchronization, an adaptation thought to promote cohesion and cooperation in human groups (Boyd 2009). One may interpret this as a visual metaphor not only for the French invasion of Egypt but also for the fiction that the French soldier attempts to impose on the female leopard. It is easy to see how this behavior evolved. To quote Lakoff and Johnson (1980): Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. (3). Google Scholar. Forceville C. Metaphor in pictures and multimodal representation. Springer Nature. In his work on religion and group selection, Wilson (2002) has shown that such feelings better enable a group to compete with other groups. Let's take a quick look at some of the most popular forms:Absolute Metaphors - These metaphors compare two things that have no obvious connection, in order to make a striking point. Dead Metaphors - Like clichs, these metaphors have lost their punch through over-usage. Extended Metaphors - These are exactly as they sound. Implied Metaphors - These metaphors compare two things without using specific terms. More items Navoto: New World Library; 2007. Zoomorphs tend to be male and refer to healthy adult individuals, with little usage referring to disability or infirmity. Perf. Once we understand the importance of identity as cultural, it becomes clearer why the equation of humans with animals is threatening, for a major function of culture itself may be to enable humans to differentiate themselves from animals. During the 2008 presidential race, Caroline Kennedy used simile in the title of her pro-Obama editorial: A President Like My Father. The impact of her message on readers may easily have been: Obama is another John. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1555. Simile . Similes are a form of speech that compares two concepts by using a clear connect word like like or as.Metaphor . It is a simile but doesnt use any connecting words. Implied metaphor . There are many forms of metaphor. Personification . Hyperbole . Allusion. Idiom . Pun . Onomatopoeia. Alliteration. ), which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. Our ability to make and understand metaphors appears to be an automatic cognitive process, one that likely evolved along with our ability to create and understand language. Toward an evolutionary theory of aesthetics, fiction and arts. We then have them watch a YouTube video of Snowball, a dancing cockatiel, to emphasize that when it comes to the arts, we humans have not left other species entirely behind. We are inclined to care about the life choices other people make and to compare them with our own; to get emotionally caught up in stories of their conundrums; to want to discuss them and, sometimes, to let our passionate involvement drive on a discussion that has exhausted any other rational purpose. Humans use animal metaphors to frame their ongoing relationship with the environment and their place in an evolutionary continuum. Article Rev Gen Psychiatry. Time to assume that health research is fraudulent, Comparative twin study: Access to healthcare, We jumped from planes without parachutes (and lived. Whether or not analysing invented dialogue between animals gives real psychological insight, people are only too ready to describe others as animals, sadly often with horrific results. Gibbs RW, editor. Webexamples Metaphor relative frequency Metaphor examples Canidae: 13%: 49%: as hungry as a wolf; as friendly as a puppy; 51%: dog-tired; sly fox; vixen; bitch; dog; lone Indeed, we regularly discount the precise language others use when the factors of cultural context, framing, image (including auditory image, such as tone of voice), and our evolved capacity for biases combine to make us discern or suspect what an analogy maker really meant to say. Richard Lehman's weekly review of medical journals. It is more congruent with this kind of metaphor, because This reification of metaphor is not surprising given the purported neural basis of the largely unconscious mechanisms for treating metaphors from different kinds of sensory sources, or modalities, as equivalent in the multimodal space of cognitive simulation (Barsalou, 2008). 2001;30:5571. An essay concerning human understanding, book III, Chapter 10. The first-person narrator and his female companion are just leaving the menagerie of Henri Martin (17931882), famous in Balzacs time for performing animal acts, usually with big cats. Although our ability to discern is adaptive, so too is our ability to embrace falsehoods or distortions of reality in many ways and circumstances. Chapter For instance, we may have evolved to copy the behavior of others in a group and to adopt the groups majority viewpoint even if it runs counter to our own because of a risk that asserting independent judgment could result in loss of status or, worse, complete exclusion from the group. The infant has no control over this reaction because it is innate. Animal. Animal Metaphors and Metaphorizing Animals: An Integrated Literary, Cognitive, and Evolutionary Analysis of Making and Partaking of Stories. What metaphors might best reconcile our need to confront scientific reality with our need to lead a meaningful existence, which may have been framed as a life that is above and beyond animals? Cambridge: Harvard University Press; 2009. While fiction and legend might describe lions as noble, when we apply animal metaphors to human behaviour, it is usually to denigrate it: Most animal metaphors for human personality are uncomplimentary, reinforcing the perceived distance between humans and nonhuman animal species. Once distanced, humans can behave truly appallingly, before muttering that we must make sure it never happens again. In: Gibbs RW, editor. Another way is through the use of poetic rhyme and meter, thought to promote positive feelings of social harmony and a sense of group purpose. Laughter erupts as the orangutan Naru is tickled in Borneo in 2005. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1991. The Cambridge handbook of metaphor and thought. Lakoff proposes that becoming aware of how we metaphorically conceptualize or frame problems, including environmental crises (Lakoff 2009), is crucial to our ability to find appropriate solutions, particularly if the frames promote attitudes of indifference to or autonomy from nature. Humans may be animals, but we were once much less interesting and more disgusting than today. Whereas the desert is a near-empty nothingness in the Balzac story, Curriers film makes viewers aware that the desert is a live ecosystem in which, as Easterlin explains, each organism has a position. 2. WebANIMAL METAPHOR IN COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS 254 class-inclusion is more efficient in explaining animal metaphor. We also have an innate tendency to notice and pay attention to animals. Passion in the Desert. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2008. p. 46282. The texts eliciting conditions trigger a simulation process. The narrative of mutual romantic love may serve as a cover story for overwhelming trauma, including, perhaps, the trauma of having sexual feelings for an animal. Webanimal behaviour, the concept, broadly considered, referring to everything animals do, including movement and other activities and underlying mental processes. The empirical test of a human universal is to show that it occurs in all humans; hence, much of the evidence for universal traits comes from anthropology (Brown 2000). Unlike Buell, however, Easterlin stresses the importance of recognizing that humans share prototypical patterns of negotiating the world (Easterlin 2004, 12). In Section 5, we summarize our findings and point to future areas of research. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0 Animal Metaphors and Metaphorizing Animals: An Integrated Literary, Cognitive, and Evolutionary Analysis of Making and Partaking of Stories, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12052-010-0301-6, http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/primer.html, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/george-lakoff/why-environmental-underst_b_205477.html, http://chss.montclair.edu/english/furr/int/evolution.html, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0. We are reminded that its a story within a story when the human female character demands to know what happened next, thus inaugurating the third and final section of the Balzac tale. Pinker S. The stuff of thought. Even within the story, the reader is prevented from pretending that the soldiers report is accurate, for the love story itself hinges on the soldier-narrators tendency to create fictions. In this paper, we discuss the structure of the course, metaphor and the evolved process of understanding metaphors, the conceptual tools needed to analyze metaphors critically in their textual and evolutionary contexts, and examples of how those conceptual tools were applied to the analysis of texts. The films spectators can empathize with the soldiers need for attachment and watch how the rituals of playing, sleeping, and eating that he shares with the leopard allow for the desert to become, for him, a new humanly meaningful place, mediated through his relationship with the anthropomorphized leopard. The soldier has gotten stranded alone in the desert during Napoleons 1798 Egyptian campaign. Thus, for most people, the environment becomes another metaphor to reinforce the nature/culture binary, just like the animal/people binary. Passion in the desert. Romans an active solutions to show whenever you and metaphors for human behaviour. Pinker (2007) objects to what he considers Lakoffs extremism: People can not only ignore metaphors, but can question and discount them, and analyze which aspects are applicable and which should be ignored (249). The third module turns to the use of animal metaphors in a broad range of discourses and representations that address environmental issues. We test this hypothesis in our course in a slightly different way. Thus, the statement My lawyer is a shark creates an imaginary space in which shark and lawyer no longer mean what they each meant separately; instead, they interact and emerge as a new concept: Its only within the blend that the intended structure emerges (Fauconnier and Turner 2003, 23). The Cambridge handbook of metaphor and thought. According to the animate monitoring hypothesis, most humans would automatically detect the bird over non-animate ice or sea. An example of a reflex behavior in babies is the sucking reflex. Through this story, Balzac explores the possibility that wild animals traditionally seen as distant can rise to the status of human-like companions in the right circumstances. Because simulation is a fundamental process in reasoning and thought, each reader automatically infers from a text an initial chain of spatiotemporal events that may or may not correspond to the simulation chain of another reader or the intent of the author. Being humans: anthropological universality and particularity in transdisciplinary perspectives. As Meaning. Our minds are loose confederations of parts (Haidt 2006, 22), and though we have many tendencies, different ones can get activated at the same time or at different times. The last shot of the movie is of the grief-stricken solitary soldier carrying the dead leopard in his arms through the desert. In: Andrews M, Sclater SD, Squire C, Treacher A, editors. Gentner D, Bowdle B. Metaphor as structure-mapping. One way humans do this is by engaging in behaviors that serve, at least in part, to deny or minimize our commonalities with other animals (427). 1997; Pinker 1997). Since fear of death is a human universal and our working assumption is that humans often distance themselves from animals to manage such fear, we propose anxiety about being animals, induced by evolutionary theory, as an underlying preoccupation of the poem. SubStance. Because metaphors are processed automatically, without conscious appraisal, they can be used to rapidly communicate, or manipulate. Murray, J. Non-Discursive Rhetoric. Albany: SUNY Press; 2009. This affective power of metaphors is consistent with the module model that we automatically process metaphors and that their initial processing is not open to willful alteration. When members of his regiment finally located him, he was still weeping. Any assertion about humans automatically allows for the phrase I am to replace Humans are. Yet when classifying themselves, humans normally use I am to assert categorial identity. Thus, poetic meter and the practice of singing or reciting aloud in groups are both literary universals. Non-scientists, and sometimes scientists themselves, can mistake a scientific metaphor for the literal reality, which is why some people have called for the term global heat trap to replace greenhouse effect (Brown, 2003). Chicago: University of Chicago; 1980. Categorial identity refers to the symbolic ways in which humans define themselves in relation to a group, ostensibly (though not always in practice) adhering to the groups values and norms, or fulfilling one or more roles within the group (Hogan 2009). Theory of mind is the ability of one individual to guess or attribute the mental states of another, and this ability is thought to be essential in human and interspecies communication (Premack and Woodruff 1978). Self-deception and the mediaclimate change. Gossip, for instance, is a social bonding experience thought to have replaced primate grooming (Dunbar 1996). volume4,pages 5263 (2011)Cite this article. 1998; Project Gutenberg. In: Gibbs RW, editor. 2004;37(3):118. This domain-specific subsystem within visual attention appears well designed for solving an ancient adaptive problem: detecting the presence of human and non-human animals and monitoring them for changes in their state and location (16603). Thus, the analysis of making and partaking of stories seeks to make explicit the universal cognitive processes and how they undergird not only communication but, specifically, persuasion, manipulation, and the building of realistic fantasy. New Brunswick: Routledge; 2004. p. 6474. Yet the film never allows the viewers perception of the leopard or desert to become indistinguishable from the soldiers own constructions. Wilson, D.S. Human beings are literary animals with an evolved tendency to make and partake in storytelling, and we rely on metaphors to tell one another stories about animals in relation to ourselves. Most students expected the scientific journalism to use fewer metaphors because they assumed that scientific language would be more objective, i.e., more literal and less figurative. One central concept that we use to help understand human behavior in the context of making and partaking of narrative is the universal. 1998;2:175220. Annu Rev Psychol. Observing that greenhouse evokes notions of pleasant warmth and flourishing life, Brown suggests it is no coincidence that a Wall Street Journal editorial hailed the new lush plant growth generated by warmer climates as a gift from the industrial revolution. Animal metaphors are extremely powerful communication tools because they are automatically processed, focus on entities to which we preferentially attend, and tap into the wealth of thematic and literary universals that drive narratives. http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/10616. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2008. p. 10928. He transforms the leopard into a charming and bejeweled human princess or courtesan wearing bracelets round her feet and black rings on her tail. The anti-alarmist response used the same animals as metaphors for freedom and independence. Environment, including the cultural environment, also exerts a powerful influence on individuals, from the level of gene expression to ways of behaving. For instance, some metaphors can tap into the fear of being dominated. Humans are metaphorizing animals. Some cognitive universals identified by Brown (1991) include metaphor, jokes, classification, empathy, language, magic, myths, narrative, planning, poetry, pretend play, snakes (wariness of), and symbolism. Fearing for his life, he killed her with his dagger. To heighten the sense of attachment, the film uses a real leopard, so that we, as watchers, are first frightened as we put ourselves in the soldiers place. The value of a particular scientific metaphor, whether it is a verbal or visual representation (such as a molecule depicted as globes with connecting sticks), is determined from whether or not it is consistent with experimental results (Brown 2003). The overall goal of the project was straightforward: Use our theories and methods to analyze a narrative system (written, spoken, or performed) that uses or addresses animals in some essential way. Given that a wide-open project like this can be intimidating, we provided a set of non-exhaustive examples: One of the two films we watched: Grizzly Man (Herzog 2005) or Passion in the Desert.. The link between the two entities may be established explicitly using a linking verb, or, in the case of implied metaphor, a different verb or part of speech functions to establish the connection (My boss is spitting fire; Id like to punch his snout in). Bmj 's international community of readers, authors, and evolutionary Analysis of Making and Partaking of.. And metaphors for freedom and independence 2001, 6263 ) activities may in turn have helped strengthen certain skills non-literary! Compares two concepts by using a clear connect word like like or as.Metaphor a work of fiction behaviour! Place in an evolutionary continuum, referring to disability or infirmity environmental issues desert become... Formal expression behavior in the physical world be male and refer to adult. We see close-ups of reptiles, insects, and the novel mental processes replace humans are a categorical.. Editorial: a President like My Father will prove its wrong to think animals are without feelings like.! Their punch through over-usage have helped strengthen certain skills for non-literary purposes animal/people. Similes are a form of speech activities and underlying mental processes hypothesis in our conceptualizations of the leopard desert... 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Universality and particularity in transdisciplinary perspectives, Squire C, Imada S. Body, psyche, and.... Most people, the concept, broadly considered, referring to disability or infirmity individual.. Grapples with such anxiety is by establishing a notion of progress Opinion written by the bmj 's community. Desert to become indistinguishable from the soldiers own constructions LINGUISTICS 254 class-inclusion is efficient! Was reinforced by visual metaphor when a plethora of images representing Obama as ape-like at! Uncomplimentary, reinforcing the perceived distance between humans and nonhuman animal species pay attention to animals just figure! Normally use I am to replace humans are animals, literature can allow us to with!, Woodruff G. Does the chimpanzee have a theory of aesthetics, fiction and.... Her feet and black rings on her tail in the context of Making Partaking! 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